Vegetables are considered protective foods as they are rich in vitamins, minerals and supply essential amino acids that our body cannot synthesize alone. Lighting can be used to alter the nutritional properties of vegetables. It also affects various stages of development in plants, which can be termed photo morphogenesis. Spectral quality, duration of exposure and amount of photon flux density significantly affect plants' physical, physiological and genetic parameters. Compared to other light sources, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are highly preferred for growing plants in a controlled environment due to their high energy use efficiency and supply of narrow light spectra. This review focuses on various studies that have been carried out to understand the effect of LED light with different spectra on various properties of vegetable crops, from their development to post-harvest quality. In addition, we have discussed the effect of LEDs on gene expression profiles.
LED, far red, photon flux density, high intensity LED
Ahmadi, T., Shabani, L., & Sabzalian, M. R. (2019). Improvement in drought tolerance of lemon balm, Melissa officinalis L. under the pre-treatment of LED lighting. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 139, 548-557.
Andrew. C.S.1997. Spectral quality affect disease development of Three pathogen on Hydroponically grown plants. Horticultural Science, 32(1), 96-100.
Appolloni, E., Paucek, I., Pennisi, G., Stringari, G., GabarrellDurany, X., Orsini, F., & Gianquinto, G. (2022). Supplemental LED Lighting Improves Fruit Growth and Yield of Tomato Grown under the Sub-Optimal Lighting Condition of a Building Integrated Rooftop Greenhouse (i-RTG). Horticulturae, 8(9), 771.
Barta, D. J., Tibbitts, T. W., Bula, R. J., & Morrow, R. C. (1992). Evaluation of light emitting diode characteristics for a space-based plant irradiation source. Advances in Space Research, 12(5), 141-149.
Braidot, E., Petrussa, E., Peresson, C., Patui, S., Bertolini, A., Tubaro, F., & Zancani, M. (2014). Low-intensity light cycles improve the quality of lamb's lettuce (Valerianella olitoria [L.] Pollich) during storage at low temperature. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 90, 15-23.
Chiang, C., Bånkestad, D., & Hoch, G. (2020). Reaching natural growth: light quality effects on plant performance in indoor growth facilities. Plants, 9(10), 1273.
Chua, A., Chong, L., Ghate, V., Yuk, H. G., & Zhou, W. (2021). Antifungal action of 405 nm light emitting diodes on tomatoes in a meso-scale system and their effect on the physicochemical properties. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 172, 111366.
Emmerich, J. C., Morrow, R. C., Clavette, T. J., Sirios, L. J., & Lee, M. C. (2004). Plant Research Unit Lighting System Development (No. 2004-01-2454). SAE Technical Paper.
Evans, J., & Poorter, H. J. P. C. (2001). Photosynthetic acclimation of plants to growth irradiance: the relative importance of specific leaf area and nitrogen partitioning in maximizing carbon gain. Plant, Cell & Environment, 24(8), 755-767.
Griebel, T., &Zeier, J. (2008). Light regulation and daytime dependency of inducible plant defenses in Arabidopsis: phytochrome signaling controls systemic acquired resistance rather than local defense. Plant Physiology, 147(2), 790-801.
Hasperué, J. H., Rodoni, L. M., Guardianelli, L. M., Chaves, A. R., & Martínez, G. A. (2016). Use of LED light for Brussels sprouts post-harvest conservation. Scientia Horticulturae, 213, 281-286.
He, J., & Qin, L. (2020). Growth and photosynthetic characteristics of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) leaves grown under natural sunlight with supplemental LED lighting in a tropical greenhouse. Journal of Plant Physiology, 252, 153239.
Islam, S. Z.Honda,Y. and Arase S. 1998.Light-induced resistance of broad bean against Botrytis cinerea. Journal of Phytopathology ,146, 479–485.
Jiang, A., Zuo, J., Zheng, Q., Guo, L., Gao, L., Zhao, S., ... & Hu, W. (2019). Red LED irradiation maintains the post-harvest quality of broccoli by elevating antioxidant enzyme activity and reducing the expression of senescence-related genes. Scientia Horticulturae, 251, 73-79.
Kasim, M. U., & Kasim, R. (2017). While continuous white LED lighting increases chlorophyll content (SPAD), green LED light reduces the infection rate of lettuce during storage and shelf life conditions. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 41(6), e13266.
Kasperbauer, M. J., & Hunt, P. G. (1988). Biological and photometric measurement of light transmission through soils of various colors. Botanical Gazette, 149(4), 361-364.
Li, J., Wu, T., Huang, K., Liu, Y., Liu, M., & Wang, J. (2021). Effect of LED Spectrum on the quality and nitrogen metabolism of lettuce under recycled hydroponics. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 678 - 197.
Liu, Y., Dawson, W., Prati, D., Haeuser, E., Feng, Y., & van Kleunen, M. (2016). Does greater specific leaf area plasticity help plants to maintain a high performance when shaded. Annals of Botany, 118(7), 1329-1336.
Ma, G., Zhang, L., Kato, M., Yamawaki, K., Kiriiwa, Y., Yahata, M., ... & Matsumoto, H. (2012). Effect of blue and red LED light irradiation on β-cryptoxanthin accumulation in the flavedo of citrus fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(1), 197-201.
Massa, G. D., Emmerich, J. C., Morrow, R. C., Bourget, C. M., and Mitchell, C.A. (2007). Plant-growth lighting for space life support: a review. Gravitational and Space Research, 19, 19–30.
Miao, C., Yang, S., Xu, J., Wang, H., Zhang, Y., Cui, J., & Ding, X. (2023). Effects of light intensity on growth and quality of lettuce and spinach cultivars in a plant factory. Plants, 12(18), 3337.
Miao, Y., Chen, Q., Qu, M., Gao, L., & Hou, L. (2019). Blue light alleviates ‘'red light syndrome' by regulating chloroplast ultrastructure, photosynthetic traits and nutrient accumulation in cucumber plants. Scientia Horticulturae, 257, 108680.
Morrow, R. C. (2008). LED lighting in horticulture. Horticultural Science, 43(7), 1947-1950.
Plesnicar, M., Kastori, R., Petrović, N., &Panković, D. (1994). Photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) leaves as affected by phosphorus nutrition. Journal of Experimental Botany, 45(7), 919-924.
Proietti, S., Moscatello, S., Riccio, F., Downey, P., &Battistelli, A. (2021). Continuous lighting promotes plant growth, light conversion efficiency, and nutritional quality of Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. in controlled environment with minor effects due to light quality. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 730119.
Rabara, R. C., Behrman, G., Timbol, T., & Rushton, P. J. (2017). Effect of spectral quality of monochromatic LED lights on the growth of artichoke seedlings. Frontiers in Plant Science, 190.
Samuolienė, G., Viršilė, A., Brazaitytė, A., Jankauskienė, J., Sakalauskienė, S., Vaštakaitė, V., & Duchovskis, P. (2017). Blue light dosage affects carotenoids and tocopherols in microgreens. Food Chemistry, 228, 50-56.
Wang, H., Jiang, Y. P., Yu, H. J., Xia, X. J., Shi, K., Zhou, Y. H., & Yu, J. Q. (2010). Light quality affects incidence of powdery mildew, expression of defence-related genes and associated metabolism in cucumber plants. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 127, 125-135.
Wu, M. C., Hou, C. Y., Jiang, C. M., Wang, Y. T., Wang, C. Y., Chen, H. H., & Chang, H. M. (2007). A novel approach of LED light radiation improves the antioxidant activity of pea seedlings. Food Chemistry, 101(4), 1753-1758.
Yang, B., Zhou, X., Xu, R., Wang, J., Lin, Y., Pang, J., & Zhong, F. (2016). Comprehensive analysis of photosynthetic characteristics and quality improvement of purple cabbage under different combinations of monochromatic light. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7, 1788.
Ying, Q., Kong, Y., Jones-Baumgardt, C., & Zheng, Y. (2020). Responses of yield and appearance quality of four Brassicaceae microgreens to varied blue light proportion in red and blue light-emitting diodes lighting. Scientia Horticulturae, 259, 108 - 857.
Zhao, X., Yu, X., Foo, E., Symons, G. M., Lopez, J., Bendehakkalu, K. T., ... & Lin, C. (2007). A study of gibberellin homeostasis and cryptochrome-mediated blue light inhibition of hypocotyl elongation. Plant Physiology, 145(1), 106-118.
Zhou, F., Zuo, J., Xu, D., Gao, L., Wang, Q., & Jiang, A. (2020). Low intensity white light-emitting diodes (LED) application to delay senescence and maintain quality of post-harvest pakchoi (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis (L.) Makino var. Communis Tsen et Lee). Scientia Horticulturae, 262, 109 – 060.
